Educational Research

Survey questionnaire design is the careful process of writing and arranging questions so that people can answer them accurately and

Psychometric scaling techniques are the methods researchers use to place people’s answers on a common measurement line, so that a

Missing not at random assumptions describe the conditions researchers make when the reason data are absent is linked to the

Generalized estimating equations are a statistical method that education researchers use when the same students, classrooms, or schools are measured

Selection on observables is a core assumption used when researchers try to estimate the effect of a program or policy

Counterfactual reasoning is the habit of asking what would have happened if something had been different, and it quietly shapes

Causal inference foundations describe the core ideas researchers use to decide whether one thing actually produces a change in another,

Moderation analysis is a statistical approach that asks a simple but important question: does the size or direction of a

Mediation analysis is a statistical approach that helps researchers examine how and why one factor influences another, rather than only

Fixed effects models are a statistical approach that researchers use to compare the same students, teachers, or schools over time